## Advanced Traits

We covered traits in Chapter 10, but like lifetimes, we didn't get to all the details. Now that we know more Rust, we can get into the nitty-gritty.

### Associated Types

Associated types are a way of associating a type placeholder with a trait such that the trait method definitions can use these placeholder types in their signatures. The implementer of a trait will specify the concrete type to be used in this type's place for the particular implementation.

We've described most of the things in this chapter as being very rare. Associated types are somewhere in the middle; they're more rare than the rest of the book, but more common than many of the things in this chapter.

An example of a trait with an associated type is the `Iterator` trait provided by the standard library. It has an associated type named `Item` that stands in for the type of the values that we're iterating over. We mentioned in Chapter 13 that the definition of the `Iterator` trait is as shown in Listing 19-20:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    pub trait Iterator {
        type Item;
        fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>;
    }

    #}

Listing 19-20: The definition of the `Iterator` trait that has an associated type `Item`

This says that the `Iterator` trait has an associated type named `Item`. `Item` is a placeholder type, and the return value of the `next` method will return values of type `Option<Self::Item>`. Implementers of this trait will specify the concrete type for `Item`, and the `next` method will return an `Option` containing a value of whatever type the implementer has specified.

#### Associated Types Versus Generics

When we implemented the `Iterator` trait on the `Counter` struct in Listing 13-6, we specified that the `Item` type was `u32`:

    impl Iterator for Counter {
        type Item = u32;

        fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item> {

This feels similar to generics. So why isn't the `Iterator` trait defined as shown in Listing 19-21?

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    pub trait Iterator<T> {
        fn next(&mut self) -> Option<T>;
    }

    #}

Listing 19-21: A hypothetical definition of the `Iterator` trait using generics

The difference is that with the definition in Listing 19-21, we could also implement `Iterator<String> for Counter`, or any other type as well, so that we'd have multiple implementations of `Iterator` for `Counter`. In other words, when a trait has a generic parameter, we can implement that trait for a type multiple times, changing the generic type parameters' concrete types each time. Then when we use the `next` method on `Counter`, we'd have to provide type annotations to indicate which implementation of `Iterator` we wanted to use.

With associated types, we can't implement a trait on a type multiple times. Using the actual definition of `Iterator` from Listing 19-20, we can only choose once what the type of `Item` will be, since there can only be one `impl Iterator for Counter`. We don't have to specify that we want an iterator of `u32` values everywhere that we call `next` on `Counter`.

The benefit of not having to specify generic type parameters when a trait uses associated types shows up in another way as well. Consider the two traits defined in Listing 19-22. Both are defining a trait having to do with a graph structure that contains nodes of some type and edges of some type. `GGraph` is defined using generics, and `AGraph` is defined using associated types:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    trait GGraph<Node, Edge> {
        // methods would go here
    }

    trait AGraph {
        type Node;
        type Edge;

        // methods would go here
    }

    #}

Listing 19-22: Two graph trait definitions, `GGraph` using generics and `AGraph` using associated types for `Node` and `Edge`

Let's say we wanted to implement a function that computes the distance between two nodes in any types that implement the graph trait. With the `GGraph` trait defined using generics, our `distance` function signature would have to look like Listing 19-23:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    # trait GGraph<Node, Edge> {}
    #
    fn distance<N, E, G: GGraph<N, E>>(graph: &G, start: &N, end: &N) -> u32 {
    #     0
    }

    #}

Listing 19-23: The signature of a `distance` function that uses the trait `GGraph` and has to specify all the generic parameters

Our function would need to specify the generic type parameters `N`, `E`, and `G`, where `G` is bound by the trait `GGraph` that has type `N` as its `Node` type and type `E` as its `Edge` type. Even though `distance` doesn't need to know the types of the edges, we're forced to declare an `E` parameter, because we need to to use the `GGraph` trait and that requires specifying the type for `Edge`.

Contrast with the definition of `distance` in Listing 19-24 that uses the `AGraph` trait from Listing 19-22 with associated types:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    # trait AGraph {
    #     type Node;
    #     type Edge;
    # }
    #
    fn distance<G: AGraph>(graph: &G, start: &G::Node, end: &G::Node) -> u32 {
    #     0
    }

    #}

Listing 19-24: The signature of a `distance` function that uses the trait `AGraph` and the associated type `Node`

This is much cleaner. We only need to have one generic type parameter, `G`, with the trait bound `AGraph`. Since `distance` doesn't use the `Edge` type at all, it doesn't need to be specified anywhere. To use the `Node` type associated with `AGraph`, we can specify `G::Node`.

#### Trait Objects with Associated Types

You may have been wondering why we didn't use a trait object in the `distance` functions in Listing 19-23 and Listing 19-24. The signature for the `distance` function using the generic `GGraph` trait does get a bit more concise using a trait object:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    # trait GGraph<Node, Edge> {}
    #
    fn distance<N, E>(graph: &GGraph<N, E>, start: &N, end: &N) -> u32 {
    #     0
    }

    #}

This might be a more fair comparison to Listing 19-24. Specifying the `Edge` type is still required, though, which means Listing 19-24 is still preferable since we don't have to specify something we don't use.

It's not possible to change Listing 19-24 to use a trait object for the graph, since then there would be no way to refer to the `AGraph` trait's associated type.

It is possible in general to use trait objects of traits that have associated types, though; Listing 19-25 shows a function named `traverse` that doesn't need to use the trait's associated types in other arguments. We do, however, have to specify the concrete types for the associated types in this case. Here, we've chosen to accept types that implement the `AGraph` trait with the concrete type of `usize` as their `Node` type and a tuple of two `usize` values for their `Edge` type:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    # trait AGraph {
    #     type Node;
    #     type Edge;
    # }
    #
    fn traverse(graph: &AGraph<Node=usize, Edge=(usize, usize)>) {}

    #}

While trait objects mean that we don't need to know the concrete type of the `graph` parameter at compile time, we do need to constrain the use of the `AGraph` trait in the `traverse` function by the concrete types of the associated types. If we didn’t provide this constraint, Rust wouldn't be able to figure out which `impl` to match this trait object to, because the associated types can be part of the signatures of the methods that Rust needs to look up in the vtable.

### Operator Overloading and Default Type Parameters

The `<PlaceholderType=ConcreteType>` syntax is used in another way as well: to specify the default type for a generic type. A great example of a situation where this is useful is operator overloading.

Rust does not allow you to create your own operators or overload arbitrary operators, but the operations and corresponding traits listed in `std::ops` can be overloaded by implementing the traits associated with the operator. For example, Listing 19-25 shows how to overload the `+` operator by implementing the `Add` trait on a `Point` struct so that we can add two `Point` instances together:

Filename: src/main.rs

    use std::ops::Add;

    #[derive(Debug,PartialEq)]
    struct Point {
        x: i32,
        y: i32,
    }

    impl Add for Point {
        type Output = Point;

        fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point {
            Point {
                x: self.x + other.x,
                y: self.y + other.y,
            }
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        assert_eq!(Point { x: 1, y: 0 } + Point { x: 2, y: 3 },
                   Point { x: 3, y: 3 });
    }

Listing 19-25: Implementing the `Add` trait to overload the `+` operator for `Point` instances

We've implemented the `add` method to add the `x` values of two `Point` instances together and the `y` values of two `Point` instances together to create a new `Point`. The `Add` trait has an `Output` associated type that's used to determine the type returned from `add`. result of the operation.

Let's look at the `Add` trait in a bit more detail. Here's its definition:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    trait Add<RHS=Self> {
        type Output;

        fn add(self, rhs: RHS) -> Self::Output;
    }

    #}

This should look familiar; it's a trait with one method and an associated type. The new part is the `RHS=Self` in the angle brackets: this syntax is called default type parameters. `RHS` is a generic type parameter (short for "right hand side") that's used for the type of the `rhs` parameter in the `add` method. If we don't specify a concrete type for `RHS` when we implement the `Add` trait, the type of `RHS` will default to the type of `Self` (the type that we're implementing `Add` on).

Let's look at another example of implementing the `Add` trait. Imagine we have two structs holding values in different units, `Millimeters` and `Meters`. We can implement `Add` for `Millimeters` in different ways as shown in Listing 19-26:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    use std::ops::Add;

    struct Millimeters(u32);
    struct Meters(u32);

    impl Add for Millimeters {
        type Output = Millimeters;

        fn add(self, other: Millimeters) -> Millimeters {
            Millimeters(self.0 + other.0)
        }
    }

    impl Add<Meters> for Millimeters {
        type Output = Millimeters;

        fn add(self, other: Meters) -> Millimeters {
            Millimeters(self.0 + (other.0 * 1000))
        }
    }

    #}

Listing 19-26: Implementing the `Add` trait on `Millimeters` to be able to add `Millimeters` to `Millimeters` and `Millimeters` to `Meters`

If we're adding `Millimeters` to other `Millimeters`, we don't need to parameterize the `RHS` type for `Add` since the default `Self` type is what we want. If we want to implement adding `Millimeters` and `Meters`, then we need to say `impl Add<Meters>` to set the value of the `RHS` type parameter.

Default type parameters are used in two main ways:

1. To extend a type without breaking existing code.
2. To allow customization in a way most users don't want.

The `Add` trait is an example of the second purpose: most of the time, you're adding two like types together. Using a default type parameter in the `Add` trait definition makes it easier to implement the trait since you don't have to specify the extra parameter most of the time. In other words, we've removed a little bit of implementation boilerplate.

The first purpose is similar, but in reverse: since existing implementations of a trait won't have specified a type parameter, if we want to add a type parameter to an existing trait, giving it a default will let us extend the functionality of the trait without breaking the existing implementation code.

### Fully Qualified Syntax for Disambiguation

Rust cannot prevent a trait from having a method with the same name as another trait's method, nor can it prevent us from implementing both of these traits on one type. We can also have a method implemented directly on the type with the same name as well! In order to be able to call each of the methods with the same name, then, we need to tell Rust which one we want to use. Consider the code in Listing 19-27 where traits `Foo` and `Bar` both have method `f` and we implement both traits on struct `Baz`, which also has a method named `f`:

Filename: src/main.rs

    trait Foo {
        fn f(&self);
    }

    trait Bar {
        fn f(&self);
    }

    struct Baz;

    impl Foo for Baz {
        fn f(&self) { println!("Baz’s impl of Foo"); }
    }

    impl Bar for Baz {
        fn f(&self) { println!("Baz’s impl of Bar"); }
    }

    impl Baz {
        fn f(&self) { println!("Baz's impl"); }
    }

    fn main() {
        let b = Baz;
        b.f();
    }

Listing 19-27: Implementing two traits that both have a method with the same name as a method defined on the struct directly

For the implementation of the `f` method for the `Foo` trait on `Baz`, we're printing out `Baz's impl of Foo`. For the implementation of the `f` method for the `Bar` trait on `Baz`, we're printing out `Baz's impl of Bar`. The implementation of `f` directly on `Baz` prints out `Baz's impl`. What should happen when we call `b.f()`? In this case, Rust will always use the implementation on `Baz` directly and will print out `Baz's impl`.

In order to be able to call the `f` method from `Foo` and the `f` method from `Baz` rather than the implementation of `f` directly on `Baz`, we need to use the fully qualified syntax for calling methods. It works like this: for any method call like:

    receiver.method(args);

We can fully qualify the method call like this:

    <Type as Trait>::method(receiver, args);

So in order to disambiguate and be able to call all the `f` methods defined in Listing 19-27, we specify that we want to treat the type `Baz` as each trait within angle brackets, then use two colons, then call the `f` method and pass the instance of `Baz` as the first argument. Listing 19-28 shows how to call `f` from `Foo` and then `f` from `Bar` on `b`:

Filename: src/main.rs

    # trait Foo {
    #     fn f(&self);
    # }
    # trait Bar {
    #     fn f(&self);
    # }
    # struct Baz;
    # impl Foo for Baz {
    #     fn f(&self) { println!("Baz’s impl of Foo"); }
    # }
    # impl Bar for Baz {
    #     fn f(&self) { println!("Baz’s impl of Bar"); }
    # }
    # impl Baz {
    #     fn f(&self) { println!("Baz's impl"); }
    # }
    #
    fn main() {
        let b = Baz;
        b.f();
        <Baz as Foo>::f(&b);
        <Baz as Bar>::f(&b);
    }

Listing 19-28: Using fully qualified syntax to call the `f` methods defined as part of the `Foo` and `Bar` traits

This will print:

    Baz's impl
    Baz’s impl of Foo
    Baz’s impl of Bar

We only need the `Type as` part if it's ambiguous, and we only need the `<>` part if we need the `Type as` part. So if we only had the `f` method directly on `Baz` and the `Foo` trait implemented on `Baz` in scope, we could call the `f` method in `Foo` by using `Foo::f(&b)` since we wouldn't have to disambiguate from the `Bar` trait.

We could also have called the `f` defined directly on `Baz` by using `Baz::f(&b)`, but since that definition of `f` is the one that gets used by default when we call `b.f()`, it's not required to fully specify that implementation if that's what we want to call.

### Supertraits to Use One Trait's Functionality Within Another Trait

Sometimes, we may want a trait to be able to rely on another trait also being implemented wherever our trait is implemented, so that our trait can use the other trait's functionality. The required trait is a supertrait of the trait we're implementing.

For example, let's say we want to make an `OutlinePrint` trait with an `outline_print` method that will print out a value outlined in asterisks. That is, if our `Point` struct implements `Display` to result in `(x, y)`, calling `outline_print` on a `Point` instance that has 1 for `x` and 3 for `y` would look like:

    **********
    *        *
    * (1, 3) *
    *        *
    **********

In the implementation of `outline_print`, since we want to be able to use the `Display` trait's functionality, we need to be able to say that the `OutlinePrint` trait will only work for types that also implement `Display` and provide the functionality that `OutlinePrint` needs. We can do that in the trait definition by specifying `OutlinePrint: Display`. It's like adding a trait bound to the trait. Listing 19-29 shows an implementation of the `OutlinePrint` trait:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    use std::fmt::Display;

    trait OutlinePrint: Display {
        fn outline_print(&self) {
            let output = self.to_string();
            let len = output.len();
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("* {} *", output);
            println!("*{}*", " ".repeat(len + 2));
            println!("{}", "*".repeat(len + 4));
        }
    }

    #}

Listing 19-29: Implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait that requires the functionality from `Display`

Because we've specified that `OutlinePrint` requires the `Display` trait, we can use `to_string` in `outline_print` (`to_string` is automatically implemented for any type that implements `Display`). If we hadn't added the `: Display` after the trait name and we tried to use `to_string` in `outline_print`, we'd get an error that no method named `to_string` was found for the type `&Self` in the current scope.

If we try to implement `OutlinePrint` on a type that doesn't implement `Display`, such as the `Point` struct:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    # trait OutlinePrint {}
    struct Point {
        x: i32,
        y: i32,
    }

    impl OutlinePrint for Point {}

    #}

We'll get an error that `Display` isn't implemented and that `Display` is required by `OutlinePrint`:

    error[E0277]: the trait bound `Point: std::fmt::Display` is not satisfied
      --> src/main.rs:20:6
       |
    20 | impl OutlinePrint for Point {}
       |      ^^^^^^^^^^^^ the trait `std::fmt::Display` is not implemented for
       `Point`
       |
       = note: `Point` cannot be formatted with the default formatter; try using
       `:?` instead if you are using a format string
       = note: required by `OutlinePrint`

Once we implement `Display` on `Point` and satisfy the constraint that `OutlinePrint` requires, like so:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #fn main() {
    # struct Point {
    #     x: i32,
    #     y: i32,
    # }
    #
    use std::fmt;

    impl fmt::Display for Point {
        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
            write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
        }
    }

    #}

then implementing the `OutlinePrint` trait on `Point` will compile successfully and we can call `outline_print` on a `Point` instance to display it within an outline of asterisks.

### The Newtype Pattern to Implement External Traits on External Types

In Chapter 10, we mentioned the orphan rule, which says we're allowed to implement a trait on a type as long as either the trait or the type are local to our crate. One way to get around this restriction is to use the newtype pattern, which involves creating a new type using a tuple struct with one field as a thin wrapper around the type we want to implement a trait for. Then the wrapper type is local to our crate, and we can implement the trait on the wrapper. "Newtype" is a term from Haskell, and in Rust, there's no runtime performance penalty for using this pattern.

For example, if we wanted to implement `Display` on `Vec`, we can make a `Wrapper` struct that holds an instance of `Vec`. Then we can implement `Display` on `Wrapper` and use the `Vec` value as shown in Listing 19-30:

Filename: src/main.rs

    use std::fmt;

    struct Wrapper(Vec<String>);

    impl fmt::Display for Wrapper {
        fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
            write!(f, "[{}]", self.0.join(", "))
        }
    }

    fn main() {
        let w = Wrapper(vec![String::from("hello"), String::from("world")]);
        println!("w = {}", w);
    }

Listing 19-30: Creating a `Wrapper` type around `Vec<String>` to be able to implement `Display`

The implementation of `Display` uses `self.0` to access the inner `Vec`, and then we can use the functionality of the `Display` type on `Wrapper`.

The downside is that since `Wrapper` is a new type, it doesn't have the methods of the value it's holding; we'd have to implement all the methods of `Vec` like `push`, `pop`, and all the rest directly on `Wrapper` to delegate to `self.0` in order to be able to treat `Wrapper` exactly like a `Vec`. If we wanted the new type to have every single method that the inner type has, implementing the `Deref` trait that we discussed in Chapter 15 on the wrapper to return the inner type can be a solution. If we don't want the wrapper type to have all the methods of the inner type, in order to restrict the wrapper type's behavior for example, we'd have to implement just the methods we do want ourselves.

That's how the newtype pattern is used in relation to traits; it's also a useful pattern without having traits involved. Let's switch focus now to talk about some advanced ways to interact with Rust's type system.