# Strings

Strings are an important concept for any programmer to master. Rust’s string handling system is a bit different from other languages, due to its systems focus. Any time you have a data structure of variable size, things can get tricky, and strings are a re-sizable data structure. That being said, Rust’s strings also work differently than in some other systems languages, such as C.

Let’s dig into the details. A ‘string’ is a sequence of Unicode scalar values encoded as a stream of UTF-8 bytes. All strings are guaranteed to be a valid encoding of UTF-8 sequences. Additionally, unlike some systems languages, strings are not NUL-terminated and can contain NUL bytes.

Rust has two main types of strings: `&str` and `String`. Let’s talk about `&str` first. These are called ‘string slices’. A string slice has a fixed size, and cannot be mutated. It is a reference to a sequence of UTF-8 bytes.

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let greeting = "Hello there."; // greeting: &'static str

    #}

`"Hello there."` is a string literal and its type is `&'static str`. A string literal is a string slice that is statically allocated, meaning that it’s saved inside our compiled program, and exists for the entire duration it runs. The `greeting` binding is a reference to this statically allocated string. Any function expecting a string slice will also accept a string literal.

String literals can span multiple lines. There are two forms. The first will include the newline and the leading spaces:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let s = "foo
        bar";

    assert_eq!("foo\n    bar", s);

    #}

The second, with a `\`, trims the spaces and the newline:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let s = "foo\
        bar";

    assert_eq!("foobar", s);

    #}

Note that you normally cannot access a `str` directly, but only through a `&str` reference. This is because `str` is an unsized type which requires additional runtime information to be usable. For more information see the chapter on unsized types.

Rust has more than only `&str`s though. A `String` is a heap-allocated string. This string is growable, and is also guaranteed to be UTF-8. `String`s are commonly created by converting from a string slice using the `to_string` method.

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let mut s = "Hello".to_string(); // mut s: String
    println!("{}", s);

    s.push_str(", world.");
    println!("{}", s);

    #}

`String`s will coerce into `&str` with an `&`:

    fn takes_slice(slice: &str) {
        println!("Got: {}", slice);
    }

    fn main() {
        let s = "Hello".to_string();
        takes_slice(&s);
    }

This coercion does not happen for functions that accept one of `&str`’s traits instead of `&str`. For example, `TcpStream::connect` has a parameter of type `ToSocketAddrs`. A `&str` is okay but a `String` must be explicitly converted using `&*`.

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    use std::net::TcpStream;

    TcpStream::connect("192.168.0.1:3000"); // Parameter is of type &str.

    let addr_string = "192.168.0.1:3000".to_string();
    TcpStream::connect(&*addr_string); // Convert `addr_string` to &str.

    #}

Viewing a `String` as a `&str` is cheap, but converting the `&str` to a `String` involves allocating memory. No reason to do that unless you have to!

## Indexing

Because strings are valid UTF-8, they do not support indexing:

    let s = "hello";

    println!("The first letter of s is {}", s[0]); // ERROR!!!

Usually, access to a vector with `[]` is very fast. But, because each character in a UTF-8 encoded string can be multiple bytes, you have to walk over the string to find the nᵗʰ letter of a string. This is a significantly more expensive operation, and we don’t want to be misleading. Furthermore, ‘letter’ isn’t something defined in Unicode, exactly. We can choose to look at a string as individual bytes, or as codepoints:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let hachiko = "忠犬ハチ公";

    for b in hachiko.as_bytes() {
        print!("{}, ", b);
    }

    println!("");

    for c in hachiko.chars() {
        print!("{}, ", c);
    }

    println!("");

    #}

This prints:

    229, 191, 160, 231, 138, 172, 227, 131, 143, 227, 131, 129, 229, 133, 172,
    忠, 犬, ハ, チ, 公,

As you can see, there are more bytes than `char`s.

You can get something similar to an index like this:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    # let hachiko = "忠犬ハチ公";
    let dog = hachiko.chars().nth(1); // Kinda like `hachiko[1]`.

    #}

This emphasizes that we have to walk from the beginning of the list of `chars`.

## Slicing

You can get a slice of a string with the slicing syntax:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let dog = "hachiko";
    let hachi = &dog[0..5];

    #}

But note that these are byte offsets, not character offsets. So this will fail at runtime:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let dog = "忠犬ハチ公";
    let hachi = &dog[0..2];

    #}

with this error:

    thread 'main' panicked at 'byte index 2 is not a char boundary; it is inside '忠'
    (bytes 0..3) of `忠犬ハチ公`'

## Concatenation

If you have a `String`, you can concatenate a `&str` to the end of it:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let hello = "Hello ".to_string();
    let world = "world!";

    let hello_world = hello + world;

    #}

But if you have two `String`s, you need an `&`:

    # #![allow(unused_variables)]
    #
    #fn main() {
    let hello = "Hello ".to_string();
    let world = "world!".to_string();

    let hello_world = hello + &world;

    #}

This is because `&String` can automatically coerce to a `&str`. This is a feature called ‘`Deref` coercions’.