# Using .SD for Data Analysis

### 2025-07-07

Translations of this document are available in

- French

This vignette will explain the most common ways to use the `.SD` variable in your `data.table` analyses. It is an adaptation of this answer given on StackOverflow.

# 1 What is `.SD`?

In the broadest sense, `.SD` is just shorthand for capturing a variable that comes up frequently in the context of data analysis. It can be understood to stand for Subset, Selfsame, or Self-reference of the Data. That is, `.SD` is in its most basic guise a reflexive reference to the `data.table` itself – as we’ll see in examples below, this is particularly helpful for chaining together “queries” (extractions/subsets/etc using `[`). In particular, this also means that `.SD` is itself a `data.table` (with the caveat that it does not allow assignment with `:=`).

The simpler usage of `.SD` is for column subsetting (i.e., when `.SDcols` is specified); as this version is much more straightforward to understand, we’ll cover that first below. The interpretation of `.SD` in its second usage, grouping scenarios (i.e., when `by =` or `keyby =` is specified), is slightly different, conceptually (though at core it’s the same, since, after all, a non-grouped operation is an edge case of grouping with just one group).

## 1.1 Loading and Previewing Lahman Data

To give this a more real-world feel, rather than making up data, let’s load some data sets about baseball from the Lahman database. In typical R usage, we’d simply load these data sets from the `Lahman` R package; in this vignette, we’ve pre-downloaded them directly from the package’s GitHub page instead.

    load('Teams.RData')
    setDT(Teams)
    Teams
    #       yearID   lgID teamID franchID  divID  Rank     G Ghome     W     L DivWin  WCWin  LgWin
    #        <int> <fctr> <fctr>   <fctr> <char> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <char> <char> <char>
    #    1:   1871     NA    BS1      BNA   <NA>     3    31    NA    20    10   <NA>   <NA>      N
    #    2:   1871     NA    CH1      CNA   <NA>     2    28    NA    19     9   <NA>   <NA>      N
    #    3:   1871     NA    CL1      CFC   <NA>     8    29    NA    10    19   <NA>   <NA>      N
    #    4:   1871     NA    FW1      KEK   <NA>     7    19    NA     7    12   <NA>   <NA>      N
    #    5:   1871     NA    NY2      NNA   <NA>     5    33    NA    16    17   <NA>   <NA>      N
    #   ---
    # 2891:   2018     NL    SLN      STL      C     3   162    81    88    74      N      N      N
    # 2892:   2018     AL    TBA      TBD      E     3   162    81    90    72      N      N      N
    # 2893:   2018     AL    TEX      TEX      W     5   162    81    67    95      N      N      N
    # 2894:   2018     AL    TOR      TOR      E     4   162    81    73    89      N      N      N
    # 2895:   2018     NL    WAS      WSN      E     2   162    81    82    80      N      N      N
    #        WSWin     R    AB     H   X2B   X3B    HR    BB    SO    SB    CS   HBP    SF    RA    ER
    #       <char> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <num> <int> <num> <num> <num> <int> <int> <int>
    #    1:   <NA>   401  1372   426    70    37     3    60    19    73    16    NA    NA   303   109
    #    2:   <NA>   302  1196   323    52    21    10    60    22    69    21    NA    NA   241    77
    #    3:   <NA>   249  1186   328    35    40     7    26    25    18     8    NA    NA   341   116
    #    4:   <NA>   137   746   178    19     8     2    33     9    16     4    NA    NA   243    97
    #    5:   <NA>   302  1404   403    43    21     1    33    15    46    15    NA    NA   313   121
    #   ---
    # 2891:      N   759  5498  1369   248     9   205   525  1380    63    32    80    48   691   622
    # 2892:      N   716  5475  1415   274    43   150   540  1388   128    51   101    50   646   602
    # 2893:      N   737  5453  1308   266    24   194   555  1484    74    35    88    34   848   783
    # 2894:      N   709  5477  1336   320    16   217   499  1387    47    30    58    37   832   772
    # 2895:      N   771  5517  1402   284    25   191   631  1289   119    33    59    40   682   649
    #         ERA    CG   SHO    SV IPouts    HA   HRA   BBA   SOA     E    DP    FP
    #       <num> <int> <int> <int>  <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <num>
    #    1:  3.55    22     1     3    828   367     2    42    23   243    24 0.834
    #    2:  2.76    25     0     1    753   308     6    28    22   229    16 0.829
    #    3:  4.11    23     0     0    762   346    13    53    34   234    15 0.818
    #    4:  5.17    19     1     0    507   261     5    21    17   163     8 0.803
    #    5:  3.72    32     1     0    879   373     7    42    22   235    14 0.840
    #   ---
    # 2891:  3.85     1     8    43   4366  1354   144   593  1337   133   151 0.978
    # 2892:  3.74     0    14    52   4345  1236   164   501  1421    85   136 0.986
    # 2893:  4.92     1     5    42   4293  1516   222   491  1121   120   168 0.980
    # 2894:  4.85     0     3    39   4301  1476   208   551  1298   101   138 0.983
    # 2895:  4.04     2     7    40   4338  1320   198   487  1417    64   115 0.989
    #                          name                          park attendance   BPF   PPF teamIDBR
    #                        <char>                        <char>      <int> <int> <int>   <char>
    #    1:    Boston Red Stockings           South End Grounds I         NA   103    98      BOS
    #    2: Chicago White Stockings       Union Base-Ball Grounds         NA   104   102      CHI
    #    3:  Cleveland Forest Citys  National Association Grounds         NA    96   100      CLE
    #    4:    Fort Wayne Kekiongas                Hamilton Field         NA   101   107      KEK
    #    5:        New York Mutuals      Union Grounds (Brooklyn)         NA    90    88      NYU
    #   ---
    # 2891:     St. Louis Cardinals             Busch Stadium III    3403587    97    96      STL
    # 2892:          Tampa Bay Rays               Tropicana Field    1154973    97    97      TBR
    # 2893:           Texas Rangers Rangers Ballpark in Arlington    2107107   112   113      TEX
    # 2894:       Toronto Blue Jays                 Rogers Centre    2325281    97    98      TOR
    # 2895:    Washington Nationals                Nationals Park    2529604   106   105      WSN
    #       teamIDlahman45 teamIDretro
    #               <char>      <char>
    #    1:            BS1         BS1
    #    2:            CH1         CH1
    #    3:            CL1         CL1
    #    4:            FW1         FW1
    #    5:            NY2         NY2
    #   ---
    # 2891:            SLN         SLN
    # 2892:            TBA         TBA
    # 2893:            TEX         TEX
    # 2894:            TOR         TOR
    # 2895:            MON         WAS

    load('Pitching.RData')
    setDT(Pitching)
    Pitching
    #         playerID yearID stint teamID   lgID     W     L     G    GS    CG   SHO    SV IPouts     H
    #           <char>  <int> <int> <fctr> <fctr> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int>  <int> <int>
    #     1: bechtge01   1871     1    PH1     NA     1     2     3     3     2     0     0     78    43
    #     2: brainas01   1871     1    WS3     NA    12    15    30    30    30     0     0    792   361
    #     3: fergubo01   1871     1    NY2     NA     0     0     1     0     0     0     0      3     8
    #     4: fishech01   1871     1    RC1     NA     4    16    24    24    22     1     0    639   295
    #     5: fleetfr01   1871     1    NY2     NA     0     1     1     1     1     0     0     27    20
    #    ---
    # 46695: zamorda01   2018     1    NYN     NL     1     0    16     0     0     0     0     27     6
    # 46696: zastrro01   2018     1    CHN     NL     1     0     6     0     0     0     0     17     6
    # 46697: zieglbr01   2018     1    MIA     NL     1     5    53     0     0     0    10    156    49
    # 46698: zieglbr01   2018     2    ARI     NL     1     1    29     0     0     0     0     65    22
    # 46699: zimmejo02   2018     1    DET     AL     7     8    25    25     0     0     0    394   140
    #           ER    HR    BB    SO BAOpp   ERA   IBB    WP   HBP    BK   BFP    GF     R    SH    SF
    #        <int> <int> <int> <int> <num> <num> <int> <int> <num> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int>
    #     1:    23     0    11     1    NA  7.96    NA     7    NA     0   146     0    42    NA    NA
    #     2:   132     4    37    13    NA  4.50    NA     7    NA     0  1291     0   292    NA    NA
    #     3:     3     0     0     0    NA 27.00    NA     2    NA     0    14     0     9    NA    NA
    #     4:   103     3    31    15    NA  4.35    NA    20    NA     0  1080     1   257    NA    NA
    #     5:    10     0     3     0    NA 10.00    NA     0    NA     0    57     0    21    NA    NA
    #    ---
    # 46695:     3     1     3    16 0.194  3.00     1     0     1     0    36     4     3     1     0
    # 46696:     3     0     4     3 0.286  4.76     0     0     1     0    26     2     3     0     0
    # 46697:    23     7    17    37 0.254  3.98     4     1     2     0   213    23    25     0     1
    # 46698:     9     1     8    13 0.265  3.74     2     0     0     0    92     1     9     0     1
    # 46699:    66    28    26   111 0.269  4.52     0     1     2     0   556     0    76     2     5
    #         GIDP
    #        <int>
    #     1:    NA
    #     2:    NA
    #     3:    NA
    #     4:    NA
    #     5:    NA
    #    ---
    # 46695:     1
    # 46696:     0
    # 46697:    11
    # 46698:     3
    # 46699:     4

Readers up on baseball lingo should find the tables’ contents familiar; `Teams` records some statistics for a given team in a given year, while `Pitching` records statistics for a given pitcher in a given year. Please do check out the documentation and explore the data yourself a bit before proceeding to familiarize yourself with their structure.

# 2 `.SD` on Ungrouped Data

To illustrate what I mean about the reflexive nature of `.SD`, consider its most banal usage:

    Pitching[ , .SD]
    #         playerID yearID stint teamID   lgID     W     L     G    GS    CG   SHO    SV IPouts     H
    #           <char>  <int> <int> <fctr> <fctr> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int>  <int> <int>
    #     1: bechtge01   1871     1    PH1     NA     1     2     3     3     2     0     0     78    43
    #     2: brainas01   1871     1    WS3     NA    12    15    30    30    30     0     0    792   361
    #     3: fergubo01   1871     1    NY2     NA     0     0     1     0     0     0     0      3     8
    #     4: fishech01   1871     1    RC1     NA     4    16    24    24    22     1     0    639   295
    #     5: fleetfr01   1871     1    NY2     NA     0     1     1     1     1     0     0     27    20
    #    ---
    # 46695: zamorda01   2018     1    NYN     NL     1     0    16     0     0     0     0     27     6
    # 46696: zastrro01   2018     1    CHN     NL     1     0     6     0     0     0     0     17     6
    # 46697: zieglbr01   2018     1    MIA     NL     1     5    53     0     0     0    10    156    49
    # 46698: zieglbr01   2018     2    ARI     NL     1     1    29     0     0     0     0     65    22
    # 46699: zimmejo02   2018     1    DET     AL     7     8    25    25     0     0     0    394   140
    #           ER    HR    BB    SO BAOpp   ERA   IBB    WP   HBP    BK   BFP    GF     R    SH    SF
    #        <int> <int> <int> <int> <num> <num> <int> <int> <num> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int>
    #     1:    23     0    11     1    NA  7.96    NA     7    NA     0   146     0    42    NA    NA
    #     2:   132     4    37    13    NA  4.50    NA     7    NA     0  1291     0   292    NA    NA
    #     3:     3     0     0     0    NA 27.00    NA     2    NA     0    14     0     9    NA    NA
    #     4:   103     3    31    15    NA  4.35    NA    20    NA     0  1080     1   257    NA    NA
    #     5:    10     0     3     0    NA 10.00    NA     0    NA     0    57     0    21    NA    NA
    #    ---
    # 46695:     3     1     3    16 0.194  3.00     1     0     1     0    36     4     3     1     0
    # 46696:     3     0     4     3 0.286  4.76     0     0     1     0    26     2     3     0     0
    # 46697:    23     7    17    37 0.254  3.98     4     1     2     0   213    23    25     0     1
    # 46698:     9     1     8    13 0.265  3.74     2     0     0     0    92     1     9     0     1
    # 46699:    66    28    26   111 0.269  4.52     0     1     2     0   556     0    76     2     5
    #         GIDP
    #        <int>
    #     1:    NA
    #     2:    NA
    #     3:    NA
    #     4:    NA
    #     5:    NA
    #    ---
    # 46695:     1
    # 46696:     0
    # 46697:    11
    # 46698:     3
    # 46699:     4

That is, `Pitching[ , .SD]` has simply returned the whole table, i.e., this was an overly verbose way of writing `Pitching` or `Pitching[]`:

    identical(Pitching, Pitching[ , .SD])
    # [1] TRUE

In terms of subsetting, `.SD` is still a subset of the data, it’s just a trivial one (the set itself).

## 2.1 Column Subsetting: `.SDcols`

The first way to impact what `.SD` is is to limit the columns contained in `.SD` using the `.SDcols` argument to `[`:

    # W: Wins; L: Losses; G: Games
    Pitching[ , .SD, .SDcols = c('W', 'L', 'G')]
    #            W     L     G
    #        <int> <int> <int>
    #     1:     1     2     3
    #     2:    12    15    30
    #     3:     0     0     1
    #     4:     4    16    24
    #     5:     0     1     1
    #    ---
    # 46695:     1     0    16
    # 46696:     1     0     6
    # 46697:     1     5    53
    # 46698:     1     1    29
    # 46699:     7     8    25

This is just for illustration and was pretty boring. In addition to accepting a character vector, `.SDcols` also accepts:

1. any function such as `is.character` to filter columns
2. the function^{*} `patterns()` to filter column names by regular expression
3. integer and logical vectors

*see `?patterns` for more details

This simple usage lends itself to a wide variety of highly beneficial / ubiquitous data manipulation operations:

## 2.2 Column Type Conversion

Column type conversion is a fact of life for data munging. Though `fwrite` recently gained the ability to declare the class of each column up front, not all data sets come from `fread` (e.g. in this vignette) and conversions back and forth among `character`/`factor`/`numeric` types are common. We can use `.SD` and `.SDcols` to batch-convert groups of columns to a common type.

We notice that the following columns are stored as `character` in the `Teams` data set, but might more logically be stored as `factor`s:

    # teamIDBR: Team ID used by Baseball Reference website
    # teamIDlahman45: Team ID used in Lahman database version 4.5
    # teamIDretro: Team ID used by Retrosheet
    fkt = c('teamIDBR', 'teamIDlahman45', 'teamIDretro')
    # confirm that they're stored as `character`
    str(Teams[ , ..fkt])
    # Classes 'data.table' and 'data.frame':	2895 obs. of  3 variables:
    #  $ teamIDBR      : chr  "BOS" "CHI" "CLE" "KEK" ...
    #  $ teamIDlahman45: chr  "BS1" "CH1" "CL1" "FW1" ...
    #  $ teamIDretro   : chr  "BS1" "CH1" "CL1" "FW1" ...
    #  - attr(*, ".internal.selfref")=<externalptr>

The syntax to now convert these columns to `factor` is simple:

    Teams[ , names(.SD) := lapply(.SD, factor), .SDcols = patterns('teamID')]
    # print out the first column to demonstrate success
    head(unique(Teams[[fkt[1L]]]))
    # [1] BOS CHI CLE KEK NYU ATH
    # 101 Levels: ALT ANA ARI ATH ATL BAL BLA BLN BLU BOS BRA BRG BRO BSN BTT BUF BWW CAL CEN CHC ... WSN

Note:

1. The `:=` is an assignment operator to update the `data.table` in place without making a copy. See `vignette("datatable-reference-semantics", package="data.table")` for more.
2. The LHS, `names(.SD)`, indicates which columns we are updating - in this case we update the entire `.SD`.
3. The RHS, `lapply()`, loops through each column of the `.SD` and converts the column to a factor.
4. We use the `.SDcols` to only select columns that have pattern of `teamID`.

Again, the `.SDcols` argument is quite flexible; above, we supplied `patterns` but we could have also supplied `fkt` or any `character` vector of column names. In other situations, it is more convenient to supply an `integer` vector of column positions or a `logical` vector dictating include/exclude for each column. Finally, the use of a function to filter columns is very helpful.

For example, we could do the following to convert all `factor` columns to `character`:

    fct_idx = Teams[, which(sapply(.SD, is.factor))] # column numbers to show the class changing
    str(Teams[[fct_idx[1L]]])
    #  Factor w/ 7 levels "AA","AL","FL",..: 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ...
    Teams[ , names(.SD) := lapply(.SD, as.character), .SDcols = is.factor]
    str(Teams[[fct_idx[1L]]])
    #  chr [1:2895] "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" "NA" ...

Lastly, we can do pattern-based matching of columns in `.SDcols` to select all columns which contain `team` back to `factor`:

    Teams[ , .SD, .SDcols = patterns('team')]
    #       teamID teamIDBR teamIDlahman45 teamIDretro
    #       <char>   <char>         <char>      <char>
    #    1:    BS1      BOS            BS1         BS1
    #    2:    CH1      CHI            CH1         CH1
    #    3:    CL1      CLE            CL1         CL1
    #    4:    FW1      KEK            FW1         FW1
    #    5:    NY2      NYU            NY2         NY2
    #   ---
    # 2891:    SLN      STL            SLN         SLN
    # 2892:    TBA      TBR            TBA         TBA
    # 2893:    TEX      TEX            TEX         TEX
    # 2894:    TOR      TOR            TOR         TOR
    # 2895:    WAS      WSN            MON         WAS
    Teams[ , names(.SD) := lapply(.SD, factor), .SDcols = patterns('team')]

** A proviso to the above: explicitly using column numbers (like `DT[ , (1) := rnorm(.N)]`) is bad practice and can lead to silently corrupted code over time if column positions change. Even implicitly using numbers can be dangerous if we don’t keep smart/strict control over the ordering of when we create the numbered index and when we use it.

## 2.3 Controlling a Model’s Right-Hand Side

Varying model specification is a core feature of robust statistical analysis. Let’s try and predict a pitcher’s ERA (Earned Runs Average, a measure of performance) using the small set of covariates available in the `Pitching` table. How does the (linear) relationship between `W` (wins) and `ERA` vary depending on which other covariates are included in the specification?

Here’s a short script leveraging the power of `.SD` which explores this question:

    # this generates a list of the 2^k possible extra variables
    #   for models of the form ERA ~ G + (...)
    extra_var = c('yearID', 'teamID', 'G', 'L')
    models = unlist(
      lapply(0L:length(extra_var), combn, x = extra_var, simplify = FALSE),
      recursive = FALSE
    )

    # here are 16 visually distinct colors, taken from the list of 20 here:
    #   https://sashat.me/2017/01/11/list-of-20-simple-distinct-colors/
    col16 = c('#e6194b', '#3cb44b', '#ffe119', '#0082c8',
              '#f58231', '#911eb4', '#46f0f0', '#f032e6',
              '#d2f53c', '#fabebe', '#008080', '#e6beff',
              '#aa6e28', '#fffac8', '#800000', '#aaffc3')

    par(oma = c(2, 0, 0, 0))
    lm_coef = sapply(models, function(rhs) {
      # using ERA ~ . and data = .SD, then varying which
      #   columns are included in .SD allows us to perform this
      #   iteration over 16 models succinctly.
      #   coef(.)['W'] extracts the W coefficient from each model fit
      Pitching[ , coef(lm(ERA ~ ., data = .SD))['W'], .SDcols = c('W', rhs)]
    })
    barplot(lm_coef, names.arg = sapply(models, paste, collapse = '/'),
            main = 'Wins Coefficient\nWith Various Covariates',
            col = col16, las = 2L, cex.names = 0.8)

Fit OLS coefficient on W, various specifications, depicted as bars with distinct colors.

The coefficient always has the expected sign (better pitchers tend to have more wins and fewer runs allowed), but the magnitude can vary substantially depending on what else we control for.

## 2.4 Conditional Joins

`data.table` syntax is beautiful for its simplicity and robustness. The syntax `x[i]` flexibly handles three common approaches to subsetting – when `i` is a `logical` vector, `x[i]` will return those rows of `x` corresponding to where `i` is `TRUE`; when `i` is another `data.table` (or a `list`), a (right) `join` is performed (in the plain form, using the `key`s of `x` and `i`, otherwise, when `on =` is specified, using matches of those columns); and when `i` is a character, it is interpreted as shorthand for `x[list(i)]`, i.e., as a join.

This is great in general, but falls short when we wish to perform a conditional join, wherein the exact nature of the relationship among tables depends on some characteristics of the rows in one or more columns.

This example is admittedly a tad contrived, but illustrates the idea; see here (1, 2) for more.

The goal is to add a column `team_performance` to the `Pitching` table that records the team’s performance (rank) of the best pitcher on each team (as measured by the lowest ERA, among pitchers with at least 6 recorded games).

    # to exclude pitchers with exceptional performance in a few games,
    #   subset first; then define rank of pitchers within their team each year
    #   (in general, we should put more care into the 'ties.method' of frank)
    Pitching[G > 5, rank_in_team := frank(ERA), by = .(teamID, yearID)]
    Pitching[rank_in_team == 1, team_performance :=
               Teams[.SD, Rank, on = c('teamID', 'yearID')]]

Note that the `x[y]` syntax returns `nrow(y)` values (i.e., it’s a right join), which is why `.SD` is on the right in `Teams[.SD]` (since the RHS of `:=` in this case requires `nrow(Pitching[rank_in_team == 1])` values).

# 3 Grouped `.SD` operations

Often, we’d like to perform some operation on our data at the group level. When we specify `by =` (or `keyby =` ), the mental model for what happens when `data.table` processes `j` is to think of your `data.table` as being split into many component sub-`data.table`s, each of which corresponds to a single value of your `by` variable(s):

In the case of grouping, `.SD` is multiple in nature – it refers to each of these sub-`data.table`s, one-at-a-time (slightly more accurately, the scope of `.SD` is a single sub-`data.table`). This allows us to concisely express an operation that we’d like to perform on each sub-`data.table` before the re-assembled result is returned to us.

This is useful in a variety of settings, the most common of which are presented here:

## 3.1 Group Subsetting

Let’s get the most recent season of data for each team in the Lahman data. This can be done quite simply with:

    # the data is already sorted by year; if it weren't
    #   we could do Teams[order(yearID), .SD[.N], by = teamID]
    Teams[ , .SD[.N], by = teamID]
    #      teamID yearID   lgID franchID  divID  Rank     G Ghome     W     L DivWin  WCWin  LgWin  WSWin
    #      <fctr>  <int> <char>   <char> <char> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <char> <char> <char> <char>
    #   1:    BS1   1875     NA      BNA   <NA>     1    82    NA    71     8   <NA>   <NA>      Y   <NA>
    #   2:    CH1   1871     NA      CNA   <NA>     2    28    NA    19     9   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #   3:    CL1   1872     NA      CFC   <NA>     7    22    NA     6    16   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #   4:    FW1   1871     NA      KEK   <NA>     7    19    NA     7    12   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #   5:    NY2   1875     NA      NNA   <NA>     6    71    NA    30    38   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #  ---
    # 145:    ANA   2004     AL      ANA      W     1   162    81    92    70      Y      N      N      N
    # 146:    ARI   2018     NL      ARI      W     3   162    81    82    80      N      N      N      N
    # 147:    MIL   2018     NL      MIL      C     1   163    81    96    67      Y      N      N      N
    # 148:    TBA   2018     AL      TBD      E     3   162    81    90    72      N      N      N      N
    # 149:    MIA   2018     NL      FLA      E     5   161    81    63    98      N      N      N      N
    #          R    AB     H   X2B   X3B    HR    BB    SO    SB    CS   HBP    SF    RA    ER   ERA
    #      <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <num> <int> <num> <num> <num> <int> <int> <int> <num>
    #   1:   831  3515  1128   167    51    15    33    52    93    37    NA    NA   343   152  1.87
    #   2:   302  1196   323    52    21    10    60    22    69    21    NA    NA   241    77  2.76
    #   3:   174   943   272    28     5     0    17    13    12     3    NA    NA   254   126  5.70
    #   4:   137   746   178    19     8     2    33     9    16     4    NA    NA   243    97  5.17
    #   5:   328  2685   633    82    21     7    19    47    20    24    NA    NA   425   174  2.46
    #  ---
    # 145:   836  5675  1603   272    37   162   450   942   143    46    73    41   734   692  4.28
    # 146:   693  5460  1283   259    50   176   560  1460    79    25    52    45   644   605  3.72
    # 147:   754  5542  1398   252    24   218   537  1458   124    32    58    41   659   606  3.73
    # 148:   716  5475  1415   274    43   150   540  1388   128    51   101    50   646   602  3.74
    # 149:   589  5488  1303   222    24   128   455  1384    45    31    73    31   809   762  4.76
    #         CG   SHO    SV IPouts    HA   HRA   BBA   SOA     E    DP    FP                    name
    #      <int> <int> <int>  <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <num>                  <char>
    #   1:    60    10    17   2196   751     2    33   110   483    56 0.870    Boston Red Stockings
    #   2:    25     0     1    753   308     6    28    22   229    16 0.829 Chicago White Stockings
    #   3:    15     0     0    597   285     6    24    11   184    17 0.816  Cleveland Forest Citys
    #   4:    19     1     0    507   261     5    21    17   163     8 0.803    Fort Wayne Kekiongas
    #   5:    70     3     0   1910   718     4    21    77   526    30 0.838        New York Mutuals
    #  ---
    # 145:     2    11    50   4363  1476   170   502  1164    90   126 0.985          Anaheim Angels
    # 146:     2     9    39   4389  1313   174   522  1448    75   152 0.988    Arizona Diamondbacks
    # 147:     0    14    49   4383  1259   173   553  1428   108   141 0.982       Milwaukee Brewers
    # 148:     0    14    52   4345  1236   164   501  1421    85   136 0.986          Tampa Bay Rays
    # 149:     1    12    30   4326  1388   192   605  1249    83   133 0.986           Miami Marlins
    #                              park attendance   BPF   PPF teamIDBR teamIDlahman45 teamIDretro
    #                            <char>      <int> <int> <int>   <fctr>         <fctr>      <fctr>
    #   1:          South End Grounds I         NA   103    96      BOS            BS1         BS1
    #   2:      Union Base-Ball Grounds         NA   104   102      CHI            CH1         CH1
    #   3: National Association Grounds         NA    96   100      CLE            CL1         CL1
    #   4:               Hamilton Field         NA   101   107      KEK            FW1         FW1
    #   5:     Union Grounds (Brooklyn)         NA    99   100      NYU            NY2         NY2
    #  ---
    # 145:    Angels Stadium of Anaheim    3375677    97    97      ANA            ANA         ANA
    # 146:                  Chase Field    2242695   108   107      ARI            ARI         ARI
    # 147:                  Miller Park    2850875   102   101      MIL            ML4         MIL
    # 148:              Tropicana Field    1154973    97    97      TBR            TBA         TBA
    # 149:                 Marlins Park     811104    89    90      MIA            FLO         MIA

Recall that `.SD` is itself a `data.table`, and that `.N` refers to the total number of rows in a group (it’s equal to `nrow(.SD)` within each group), so `.SD[.N]` returns the entirety of `.SD` for the final row associated with each `teamID`.

Another common version of this is to use `.SD[1L]` instead to get the first observation for each group, or `.SD[sample(.N, 1L)]` to return a random row for each group.

## 3.2 Group Optima

Suppose we wanted to return the best year for each team, as measured by their total number of runs scored (`R`; we could easily adjust this to refer to other metrics, of course). Instead of taking a fixed element from each sub-`data.table`, we now define the desired index dynamically as follows:

    Teams[ , .SD[which.max(R)], by = teamID]
    #      teamID yearID   lgID franchID  divID  Rank     G Ghome     W     L DivWin  WCWin  LgWin  WSWin
    #      <fctr>  <int> <char>   <char> <char> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <char> <char> <char> <char>
    #   1:    BS1   1875     NA      BNA   <NA>     1    82    NA    71     8   <NA>   <NA>      Y   <NA>
    #   2:    CH1   1871     NA      CNA   <NA>     2    28    NA    19     9   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #   3:    CL1   1871     NA      CFC   <NA>     8    29    NA    10    19   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #   4:    FW1   1871     NA      KEK   <NA>     7    19    NA     7    12   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #   5:    NY2   1872     NA      NNA   <NA>     3    56    NA    34    20   <NA>   <NA>      N   <NA>
    #  ---
    # 145:    ANA   2000     AL      ANA      W     3   162    81    82    80      N      N      N      N
    # 146:    ARI   1999     NL      ARI      W     1   162    81   100    62      Y      N      N      N
    # 147:    MIL   1999     NL      MIL      C     5   161    80    74    87      N      N      N      N
    # 148:    TBA   2009     AL      TBD      E     3   162    81    84    78      N      N      N      N
    # 149:    MIA   2017     NL      FLA      E     2   162    78    77    85      N      N      N      N
    #          R    AB     H   X2B   X3B    HR    BB    SO    SB    CS   HBP    SF    RA    ER   ERA
    #      <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <num> <int> <num> <num> <num> <int> <int> <int> <num>
    #   1:   831  3515  1128   167    51    15    33    52    93    37    NA    NA   343   152  1.87
    #   2:   302  1196   323    52    21    10    60    22    69    21    NA    NA   241    77  2.76
    #   3:   249  1186   328    35    40     7    26    25    18     8    NA    NA   341   116  4.11
    #   4:   137   746   178    19     8     2    33     9    16     4    NA    NA   243    97  5.17
    #   5:   523  2426   670    87    14     4    58    52    59    22    NA    NA   362   172  3.02
    #  ---
    # 145:   864  5628  1574   309    34   236   608  1024    93    52    47    43   869   805  5.00
    # 146:   908  5658  1566   289    46   216   588  1045   137    39    48    60   676   615  3.77
    # 147:   815  5582  1524   299    30   165   658  1065    81    33    55    51   886   813  5.07
    # 148:   803  5462  1434   297    36   199   642  1229   194    61    49    45   754   686  4.33
    # 149:   778  5602  1497   271    31   194   486  1282    91    30    67    41   822   772  4.82
    #         CG   SHO    SV IPouts    HA   HRA   BBA   SOA     E    DP    FP                    name
    #      <int> <int> <int>  <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <int> <num>                  <char>
    #   1:    60    10    17   2196   751     2    33   110   483    56 0.870    Boston Red Stockings
    #   2:    25     0     1    753   308     6    28    22   229    16 0.829 Chicago White Stockings
    #   3:    23     0     0    762   346    13    53    34   234    15 0.818  Cleveland Forest Citys
    #   4:    19     1     0    507   261     5    21    17   163     8 0.803    Fort Wayne Kekiongas
    #   5:    54     3     1   1536   622     2    33    46   323    33 0.868        New York Mutuals
    #  ---
    # 145:     5     3    46   4344  1534   228   662   846   134   182 0.978          Anaheim Angels
    # 146:    16     9    42   4402  1387   176   543  1198   104   132 0.983    Arizona Diamondbacks
    # 147:     2     5    40   4328  1618   213   616   987   127   146 0.979       Milwaukee Brewers
    # 148:     3     5    41   4282  1421   183   515  1125    98   135 0.983          Tampa Bay Rays
    # 149:     1     7    34   4328  1450   193   627  1202    73   156 0.988           Miami Marlins
    #                              park attendance   BPF   PPF teamIDBR teamIDlahman45 teamIDretro
    #                            <char>      <int> <int> <int>   <fctr>         <fctr>      <fctr>
    #   1:          South End Grounds I         NA   103    96      BOS            BS1         BS1
    #   2:      Union Base-Ball Grounds         NA   104   102      CHI            CH1         CH1
    #   3: National Association Grounds         NA    96   100      CLE            CL1         CL1
    #   4:               Hamilton Field         NA   101   107      KEK            FW1         FW1
    #   5:     Union Grounds (Brooklyn)         NA    93    92      NYU            NY2         NY2
    #  ---
    # 145:   Edison International Field    2066982   102   103      ANA            ANA         ANA
    # 146:            Bank One Ballpark    3019654   101   101      ARI            ARI         ARI
    # 147:               County Stadium    1701796    99    99      MIL            ML4         MIL
    # 148:              Tropicana Field    1874962    98    97      TBR            TBA         TBA
    # 149:                 Marlins Park    1583014    93    93      MIA            FLO         MIA

Note that this approach can of course be combined with `.SDcols` to return only portions of the `data.table` for each `.SD` (with the caveat that `.SDcols` should be fixed across the various subsets)

NB: `.SD[1L]` is currently optimized by `GForce` (see also), `data.table` internals which massively speed up the most common grouped operations like `sum` or `mean` – see `?GForce` for more details and keep an eye on/voice support for feature improvement requests for updates on this front: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6

## 3.3 Grouped Regression

Returning to the inquiry above regarding the relationship between `ERA` and `W`, suppose we expect this relationship to differ by team (i.e., there’s a different slope for each team). We can easily re-run this regression to explore the heterogeneity in this relationship as follows (noting that the standard errors from this approach are generally incorrect – the specification `ERA ~ W*teamID` will be better – this approach is easier to read and the coefficients are OK):

    # Overall coefficient for comparison
    overall_coef = Pitching[ , coef(lm(ERA ~ W))['W']]
    # use the .N > 20 filter to exclude teams with few observations
    Pitching[ , if (.N > 20L) .(w_coef = coef(lm(ERA ~ W))['W']), by = teamID
              ][ , hist(w_coef, 20L, las = 1L,
                        xlab = 'Fitted Coefficient on W',
                        ylab = 'Number of Teams', col = 'darkgreen',
                        main = 'Team-Level Distribution\nWin Coefficients on ERA')]
    abline(v = overall_coef, lty = 2L, col = 'red')

A histogram depicting the distribution of fitted coefficients. It is vaguely bell-shaped and concentrated around -.2

While there is indeed a fair amount of heterogeneity, there’s a distinct concentration around the observed overall value.

The above is just a short introduction of the power of `.SD` in facilitating beautiful, efficient code in `data.table`!